António J. Reis ibecame a Civil Engineer at IST - University of Lisbon in 1972 and obtained his Ph.D at the University of Waterloo in Canada in 1977. He was Science Research Fellow at the University of Surrey, UK, and Professor of Bridges and Structural Engineering at the University of Lisbon for more than 35 years. Reis was also Visiting Professor at EPFL Lausanne Switzerland in 2013 and 2015. In 1980, he established his own design office GRID where he is currently Technical Director and was responsible for the design of more than 200 bridges. The academic and design experience were always combined in developing and supervising research studies and innovative design aspects in the field of steel and concrete bridges, cable stayed bridges, long span roofs and stability of steel structures. A. Reis has design studies and projects in more than 20 countries, namely in Europe, Middle East and Africa and presented more than 150 publications. He received several awards at international level from IABSE, ECCS, ICE and Royal Academy of Sciences of Belgium.

José J. Oliveira Pedro became a Civil Engineer at IST - University of Lisbon in 1991, concluding his Master's degree in 1995 and Ph.D in 2007, with the thesis "Structural analysis of composite steel-concrete cable-stayed bridges". He joined the Civil Engineering Department of IST in 1990, as a Student Lecturer, and is currently Assistant Professor of Bridges, Design of Structures and Special Structures. In 1999, he was Researcher at Liège University / Bureau d'Etudes Greisch and, in 2015, Visiting Professor at EPFL Lausanne. In 1991, he joined design office GRID Consulting Engineers, and since then is very much involved in the structural design of bridges and viaducts, stadiums, long span halls and other large structures. He is the author/ co-author of over seventy publications in scientific journals and conference proceedings. In 2013, he received the Baker medal, and in 2017 the John Henry Garrood King Medal, from the Institute of Civil Engineers, for the best paper published in Bridge Engineering journal.

About the Authors xiii

Preface xv

Acknowledgements xvii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Generalities 1

1.2 Definitions and Terminology 1

1.3 Bridge Classification 4

1.4 Bridge Typology 6

1.5 Some Historical References 16

1.5.1 Masonry Bridges 16

1.5.2 Timber Bridges 18

1.5.3 Metal Bridges 18

1.5.4 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Bridges 24

1.5.5 Cable Supported Bridges 28

References 30

2 Bridge Design: Site Data and Basic Conditions 31

2.1 Design Phases and Methodology 31

2.2 Basic Site Data 32

2.2.1 Generalities 32

2.2.2 Topographic Data 32

2.2.3 Geological and Geotechnical Data 35

2.2.4 Hydraulic Data 36

2.2.5 Other Data 38

2.3 Bridge Location. Alignment, Bridge Length and Hydraulic Conditions 38

2.3.1 The Horizontal and Vertical Alignments 42

2.3.2 The Transverse Alignment 46

2.4 Elements Integrated in Bridge Decks 49

2.4.1 Road Bridges 49

2.4.1.1 Surfacing and Deck Waterproofing 50

2.4.1.2 Walkways, Parapets and Handrails 50

2.4.1.3 Fascia Beams 53

2.4.1.4 Drainage System 54

2.4.1.5 Lighting System 55

2.4.1.6 Expansion Joints 55

2.4.2 Railway Decks 58

2.4.2.1 Track System 59

2.4.2.2 Power Traction System (Catenary System) 61

2.4.2.3 Footways, Parapets/Handrails, Drainage and Lighting Systems 61

References 61

3 Actions and Structural Safety 63

3.1 Types of Actions and Limit State Design 63

3.2 Permanent Actions 65

3.3 Highway Traffic Loading - Vertical Forces 68

3.4 Braking, Acceleration and Centrifugal Forces in Highway Bridges 72

3.5 Actions on Footways or Cycle Tracks and Parapets, of Highway Bridges 74

3.6 Actions for Abutments and Walls Adjacent to Highway Bridges 75

3.7 Traffic Loads for Railway Bridges 76

3.7.1 General 76

3.7.2 Load Models 76

3.8 Braking, Acceleration and Centrifugal Forces in Railway Bridges: Nosing Forces 77

3.9 Actions on Maintenance Walkways and Earth Pressure Effects for Railway Bridges 78

3.10 Dynamic Load Effects 79

3.10.1 Basic Concepts 79

3.10.2 Dynamic Effects for Railway Bridges 82

3.11 Wind Actions and Aerodynamic Stability of Bridges 84

3.11.1 Design Wind Velocities and Peak Velocities Pressures 84

3.11.2 Wind as a Static Action on Bridge Decks and Piers 89

3.11.3 Aerodynamic Response: Basic Concepts 91

3.11.3.1 Vortex Shedding 94

3.11.3.2 Divergent Amplitudes: Aerodynamic Instability 95

3.12 Hydrodynamic Actions 98

3.13 Thermal Actions and Thermal Effects 99

3.13.1 Basic Concepts 99

3.13.2 Thermal Effects 102

3.13.3 Design Values 107

3.14 Shrinkage, Creep and Relaxation in Concrete Bridges 109

3.15 Actions Due to Imposed Deformations. Differential Settlements 117

3.16 Actions Due to Friction in Bridge Bearings 119

3.17 Seismic Actions 119

3.17.1 Basis of Design 119

3.17.2 Response Spectrums for Bridge Seismic Analysis 121

3.18 Accidental Actions 124

3.19 Actions During Construction 124

3.20 Basic Criteria for Bridge Design 125

References 125

4 Conceptual Design and Execution Methods 129

4.1 Concept Design: Introduction 129

4.2 Span Distribution and Deck Continuity 131

4.2.1 Span Layout 131

4.2.2 Deck Continuity and Expansion Joints 132

4.3 The Influence of the Execution Method 134

4.3.1 A Prestressed Concrete Box Girder Deck 134

4.3.2 A Steel¿Concrete Composite Steel Deck 136

4.3.3 Concept Design and Execution: Preliminary Conclusions 136

4.4 Superstructure: Concrete Bridges 138

4.4.1 Options for the Bridge Deck 138

4.4.2 The Concrete Material - Main Proprieties 139

4.4.2.1 Concrete 139

4.4.2.2 Reinforcing Steel 140

4.4.2.3 Prestressing Steel 140

4.4.3 Slab and Voided Slab Decks 142

4.4.4 Ribbed Slab and Slab¿Girder Decks 144

4.4.5 Precasted Slab¿Girder Decks 152

4.4.6 Box Girder Decks 155

4.5 Superstructure: Steel and Steel¿Concrete Composite Bridges 160

4.5.1 Options for Bridge Type: Plated Structures 160

4.5.2 Steels for Metal Bridges and Corrosion Protection 166

4.5.2.1 Materials and Weldability 166

4.5.2.2 Corrosion Protection 172

4.5.3 Slab Deck: Concrete Slabs and Orthotropic Plates 173

4.5.3.1 Concrete Slab Decks 174

4.5.3.2 Steel Orthotropic Plate Decks 176

4.5.4 Plate Girder Bridges 179

4.5.4.1 Superstructure Components 179

4.5.4.2 Preliminary Design of the Main Girders 182

4.5.4.3 Vertical Bracing System 188

4.5.4.4 Horizontal Bracing System 191

4.5.5 Box Girder Bridges 192

4.5.5.1 General 192

4.5.5.2 Superstructure Components 193

4.5.5.3 Pre¿Design of Composite Box Girder Sections 196

4.5.5.4 Pre¿Design of Diaphragms or Cross Frames 199

4.5.6 Typical Steel Quantities 201

4.6 Superstructure: Execution Methods 202

4.6.1 General Aspects 202

4.6.2 Execution Methods for Concrete Decks 203

4.6.2.1 General 203

4.6.2.2 Scaffoldings and Falseworks 203

4.6.2.3 Formwork Launching Girders 206

4.6.2.4 Incremental Launching 206

4.6.2.5 Cantilever Construction 212

4.6.2.6 Precasted Segmental Cantilever Construction 221

4.6.2.7 Other Methods 222

4.6.3 Erection Methods for Steel and Composite Bridges 223

4.6.3.1 Erection Methods, Transport and Erection Joints 223

4.6.3.2 Erection with Cranes Supported from the Ground 224

4.6.3.3 Incremental Launching 224

4.6.3.4 Erection by the Cantilever Method 227

4.6.3.5 Other Methods 227

4.7 Substructure: Conceptual Design and Execution Methods 229

4.7.1 Elements and Functions 229

4.7.2 Bridge Piers 229

4.7.2.1 Structural Materials and Pier Typology 229

4.7.2.2 Piers Pre¿Design 232

4.7.2.3 Execution Method of the Deck and Pier Concept Design 233

4.7.2.4 Construction Methods for Piers 240

4.7.3 Abutments 241

4.7.3.1 Functions of the Abutments 241

4.7.3.2 Abutment Concepts and Typology 241

4.7.4 Bridge Foundations 245

4.7.4.1 Foundation Typology 245

4.7.4.2 Direct Foundations 245

4.7.4.3 Pile Foundations 246

4.7.4.4 Special Bridge Foundations 247

4.7.4.5 Bridge Pier Foundations in Rivers 250

References 251

5 Aesthetics and Environmental Integration 255

5.1 Introduction 255

5.2 Integration and Formal Aspects 256

5.3 Bridge Environment 256

5.4 Shape and Function 258

5.5 Order and Continuity 260

5.6 Slenderness and Transparency 262

5.7 Symmetries, Asymmetries and Proximity with Other Bridges 266

5.8 Piers Aesthetics 267

5.9 Colours, Shadows, and Detailing 268

5.10 Urban Bridges 272

References 277

6 Superstructure: Analysis and Design 279

6.1 Introduction 279

6.2 Structural Models 280

6.3 Deck Slabs 283

6.3.1 General 283

6.3.2 Overall Bending: Shear Lag Effects 283

6.3.3 Local Bending Effects: Influence Surfaces 287

6.3.4 Elastic Restraint of Deck Slabs 295

6.3.5 Transverse Prestressing of Deck Slabs 297

6.3.6 Steel Orthotropic Plate Decks 300

6.4 Transverse Analysis of Bridge Decks 301

6.4.1 Use of Influence Lines for Transverse Load Distribution 301

6.4.2 Transverse Load Distribution Coefficients for Load Effects 302

6.4.3 Transverse Load Distribution Methods 303

6.4.3.1 Rigid Cross Beam Methods: Courbon Method 304

6.4.3.2 Transverse Load Distribution on Cross Beams 307

6.4.3.3 Extensions of the Courbon Method: Influence of Torsional Stiffness of Main Girders and Deformability of Cross Beams 307

6.4.3.4 The Orthotropic Plate Approach 308

6.4.3.5 Other Transverse Load Distribution Methods 313

6.5 Deck Analysis by Grid and FEM Models 313

6.5.1 Grid Models 313

6.5.1.1 Fundamentals 313

6.5.1.2 Deck Modelling 315

6.5.1.3 Properties of Beam Elements in Grid Models 317

6.5.1.4 Limitations and Extensions of Plane Grid Modelling 318

6.5.2 FEM Models 318

6.5.2.1 Fundamentals 318

6.5.2.2 FEM for Analysis of Bridge Decks 323

6.6 Longitudinal Analysis of the Superstructure 329

6.6.1 Generalities - Geometrical Non¿Linear Effects: Cables and Arches 329

6.6.2 Frame and Arch Effects 332

6.6.3 Effect of Longitudinal Variation of Cross Sections 334

6.6.4 Torsion Effects in Bridge Decks - Non¿Uniform Torsion 336

6.6.5 Torsion in Steel¿Concrete Composite Decks 343

6.6.5.1 Composite Box Girder Decks 343

6.6.5.2 Composite Plate Girder Decks 345

6.6.5.3 Transverse Load Distribution in Open Section Decks 348

6.6.6 Curved Bridges 350

6.6.6.1 Statics of Curved Bridges 350

6.6.6.2 Simply Supported Curved Bridge Deck 352

6.6.6.3 Approximate Method 353

6.6.6.4 Bearing System and Deck Elongations 353

6.7 Influence of Construction Methods on Superstructure Analysis 355

6.7.1 Span by Span Erection of Prestressed Concrete Decks 356

6.7.2 Cantilever Construction of Prestressed Concrete Decks 357

6.7.3 Prestressed Concrete Decks with Prefabricated Girders 360

6.7.4 Steel¿Concrete Composite Decks 361

6.8 Prestressed Concrete Decks: Design Aspects 364

6.8.1 Generalities 364

6.8.2 Design Concepts and Basic Criteria 364

6.8.3 Durability 364

6.8.4 Concept of Partial Prestressed Concrete (PPC) 364