Linda Steg is professor of Environmental Psychology at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands.

Judith I. M. de Groot is a Senior Lecturer in Sustainable Consumer Behaviour at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands.

List of Figures xix List of Tables xxi List of Boxes xxii List of Contributors xxiv 1 Environmental Psychology: History, Scope, and Methods 1Linda Steg, Agnes E. van den Berg, and Judith I. M. de Groot 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 History of the Field 2 1.2.1 Towards 'Architectural' Psychology 3 1.2.2 Towards a Green Psychology 4 1.3 Current Scope and Characteristics of the Field 4 1.3.1 Interactive Approach 4 1.3.2 Interdisciplinary Collaboration 5 1.3.3 Problem¿Focused Approach 5 1.3.4 Diversity of Methods 6 1.4 Main Research Methods in Environmental Psychology 6 1.4.1 Questionnaire Studies 7 1.4.2 Laboratory Experiments 8 1.4.3 Computer Simulation Studies 8 1.4.4 Field Studies 9 1.4.5 Case Studies 9 1.5 Overview of the Book 10 Glossary 10 Suggestions for Further Reading 11 Review Questions 11 PART I ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND WELL-BEING 13 2 Environmental Risk Perception 15Gisela Böhm and Carmen Tanner 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 What are Environmental Risks? 16 2.3 Subjective Risk Judgements 17 2.3.1 Heuristics and Biases in Risk Judgements 17 2.3.2 Temporal Discounting of Environmental Risks 19 2.3.3 The Psychometric Paradigm 19 2.4 Risk, Values, and Morality 19 2.4.1 Values 20 2.4.2 Morality and Ethics 21 2.5 Emotional Reactions to Environmental Risks 22 2.6 Summary 23 Glossary 23 Suggestions for Further Reading 24 Review Questions 25 3 Climate Change as a Unique Environmental Problem 26Janet K. Swim and Lorraine Whitmarsh 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Public Understanding of Climate Change 27 3.3 Assessing the Risk of Climate Change 28 3.3.1 Detecting a Problem 30 3.3.2 Interpretations of Problems 31 3.3.3 Accepting Responsibility and Taking Action 32 3.4 Summary 33 Glossary 33 Suggestions for Further Reading 34 Review Questions 35 4 Environmental Stress 36Elena Bilotta, Uchita Vaid, and Gary W. Evans 4.1 Introduction 37 4.2 Conceptualizations of Stress 37 4.3 Effects of Environmental Stress 38 4.3.1 Noise 38 4.3.2 Crowding 40 4.3.3 Poor Housing Quality 41 4.3.4 Poor Neighbourhood Quality 42 4.3.5 Traffic Congestion 42 4.4 Summary 43 Glossary 43 Acknowledgements 44 Suggestions for Further Reading 44 Review Questions 44 5 Scenic Beauty: Visual Landscape Assessment and Human Landscape Perception 45Mari S. Tveit, Åsa Ode Sang, and Caroline M. Hagerhall 5.1 Introduction 46 5.2 Visual Quality Assessment 46 5.3 Theories Explaining Landscape Preferences as Innate or Learnt 47 5.4 Measuring and Mapping Scenic Beauty 50 5.5 Methodological Developments 51 5.6 Summary 52 Glossary 52 Suggestions for Further Reading 53 Review Questions 54 6 Health Benefits of Nature 55Agnes E. van den Berg,Yannick Joye, and Sjerp de Vries 6.1 Introduction 56 6.2 What is Health and How can it be Measured? 57 6.3 What is Nature and How can it be Measured? 57 6.4 Nature and Clinical Health 58 6.5 Green Space and Public Health 59 6.6 Mechanisms Linking Nature to Health 60 6.6.1 Air Quality 61 6.6.2 Physical Activity 61 6.6.3 Social Cohesion 62 6.6.4 Stress Reduction 62 6.7 Summary 63 Glossary 63 Suggestions for Further Reading 64 Review Questions 64 7 Restorative Environments 65Yannick Joye and Agnes E. van den Berg 7.1 Introduction 66 7.2 Restorative Environments Research 66 7.2.1 Stress Recovery Theory 67 7.2.2 Attention Restoration Theory 68 7.3 The Evolutionary Origins of Restorative Nature Experiences 69 7.4 Recent Theoretical and Empirical Developments 70 7.4.1 Perceptual Fluency Account 70 7.4.2 Connectedness to Nature 70 7.4.3 MicröRestorative Experiences and Instorative Effects 72 7.5 Applications and Implications 72 7.6 Summary 73 Glossary 73 Suggestions for Further Reading 75 Review Questions 75 8 Ambivalence Towards Nature and Natural Landscapes 76Agnes E. van den Berg and Cecil C. Konijnendijk 8.1 Introduction 77 8.2 Historical Overview 77 8.3 Emotional Impacts and Meanings of Natural Environment Experience 78 8.4 Views of Nature and Landscape Preferences 79 8.5 The Role of Biodiversity 80 8.6 An Existential¿Motivational Account 81 8.7 Practical Implications 82 8.8 Summary 83 Glossary 83 Suggestions for Further Reading 84 Review Questions 84 9 Human Dimensions of Wildlife 85Maarten H. Jacobs, Jerry J. Vaske, Tara L. Teel, and Michael J. Manfredo 9.1 Introduction 86 9.2 Early Work: Attitudes Towards Wildlife 86 9.3 The Cognitive Hierarchy 87 9.4 Wildlife Value Orientations 89 9.5 Predicting Norms and Attitudes Towards Wildlife 91 9.6 Emotions Towards Wildlife 91 9.7 Summary 93 Glossary 93 Suggestions for Further Reading 94 Review Questions 94 10 Children and the Natural Environment 95Karin Tanja¿Dijkstra, Jolanda Maas, Janke van Dijk¿Wesselius, and Agnes van den Berg 10.1 Introduction 96 10.2 Childhood Experiences with Nature 96 10.3 Nature and Children's Health and Well¿Being 98 10.3.1 Physical Health Benefits 99 10.3.2 Mental Health Benefits 99 10.3.3 Cognitive Benefits 100 10.4 Childhood Nature Experiences and Adult Environmentalism 101 10.5 Applications and Implications 101 10.6 Summary 102 Glossary 102 Suggestions for Further Reading 103 Review Questions 103 11 Appraising and Designing Built Environments that Promote Well¿Being and Healthy Behaviour 104Robert Gifford and Lindsay J. McCunn 11.1 Introduction 105 11.2 Aesthetic Appraisals of Architecture 105 11.2.1 Uniformities in the Appraisal of Built Space 105 11.2.2 Observer Differences 107 11.2.3 Meaning in Architecture 108 11.3 Three Building Design Approaches that Promote Well¿Being and Healthy Behaviour in Buildings 108 11.3.1 Social Design 108 11.3.2 Biophilic Design 110 11.3.3 Evidence¿Based Design 111 11.4 Summary 111 Glossary 111 Suggestions for Further Reading 112 Review Questions 112 12 Urban Environmental Quality 113Mirilia Bonnes, Massimiliano Scopelliti, Ferdinando Fornara, and Giuseppe Carrus 12.1 Introduction 114 12.2 Urban Settings as a Source of Stress and Discomfort 115 12.3 Urban Settings as a Source of Well¿Being and Restoration 116 12.4 Residential Satisfaction - A Multicomponent Concept 117 12.5 A Multidimensional Approach to Urban Environmental Quality 117 12.6 The Multi¿Place Approach 120 12.7 Summary 121 Glossary 121 Suggestions for Further Reading 122 Review Questions 122 13 Environment and Quality of Life 123Goda Perlaviciute and Linda Steg 13.1 Introduction 124 13.2 QoL: Objective and Subjective Measures 125 13.3 QoL: Unidimensional and Multidimensional Measures 126 13.4 Environment and QoL: Research Overview 127 13.4.1 Which QoL Aspects are most Important? 127 13.4.2 To What Extent is QoL Sustained in Certain Situations? 129 13.4.3 How Does QoL Differ with Varying Environmental Conditions? 130 13.4.4 How Do Environmental Transformations Influence QoL? 131 13.5 Summary 133 Glossary 133 Suggestions for Further Reading 134 Review Questions 134 14 Place Attachment 135Lynne C. Manzo and Patrick Devine¿Wright 14.1 Introduction 136 14.2 Theories and Models of Place Attachment 137 14.2.1 Components of Place Attachment 137 14.2.2 Types of Place Attachments 138 14.2.3 Place Attachments Involve an Array of Emotions 138 14.2.4 Place Attachments as Dynamic and Socially Produced 139 14.3 Applications of Place Attachment 140 14.4 Summary 142 Glossary 142 Suggestions for Further Reading 143 Review Questions 143 15 How Cues in the Environment Affect Normative Behaviour 144Siegwart Lindenberg 15.1 Introduction 145 15.2 Overarching Goals and their Relative Strengths 146 15.3 Environmental Cues that Directly Strengthen the Normative Goal 148 15.4 Environmental Cues that Directly Weaken the Normative Goal 149 15.5 Indirect Weakening of the Normative Goal by Environmental Cues that Strengthen the Gain Goal 150 15.6 Indirect Weakening of the Normative Goal by Environmental Cues that Strengthen the Hedonic Goal 151 15.7 Summary 152 Glossary 152 Suggestions for Further Reading 153 Review Questions 153 PART II FACTORS INFLUENCING ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR 155 16 Measuring Environmental Behaviour 157Birgitta Gatersleben 16.1 Introduction 158 16.2 What to Measure? Behaviour or Impact 158 16.2.1 Environmental Behaviour 158 16.2.2 Environmental Impact 159 16.3 How to Measure Environmental Behaviour? 162 16.4 Multidimensional or Unidimensional Measures of Environmental Behaviour 163 16.4.1 Multidimensional Measures of Environmental Behaviour 163 16.4.2 A Unidimensional Measure of Environmental Behaviour 164 16.5 Summary 165 Glossary 165 Suggestions for Further Reading 166 Review Questions 166 17 Values and Pro¿Environmental Behaviour 167Judith I.M. de Groot and John Thøgersen 17.1 Introduction 168 17.2 Values 168 17.3 Value Theories 169 17.3.1 Social Value Orientations 169 17.3.2 Schwartz's Value Theory 169 17.3.3 Four Key Values for PröEnvironmental Behaviour 171 17.4 How Values Affect Environmental Behaviour 173 17.5 Related Concepts 174 17.6 Practical Relevance of Value Research 176 17.7 Summary 176 Glossary 177 Suggestions for Further Reading 177 Review Questions 178 18 Social Norms and Pro¿Environmental Behaviour 17Kees Keizer and P. Wesley Schultz 18.1 Introduction 180 18.2 What is a Social Norm? 180 18.3 How Influential are Norms on Behaviour? 181 18.4 Why Do People Conform to Norms? 182 18.5 When Do Norms Influence Behaviour? 182 18.5.1 Salience 182 18.5.2 Group Size 183 18.5.3 Reference Groups 184 18.5.4 Personal Norms 184 18.5.5 Norm Conflict and the Importance of Aligned Messages 185 18.6 Summary 187 Glossary 188 Suggestions for Further Reading 188 Review Questions 188 19 Emotions and Pro¿Environmental Behaviour 189Danny Taufik and Leonie Venhoeven 19.1 Introduction 190 19.2 Emotions as a Motive for Action 191 19.3 Hedonic and Eudaimonic View on Emotions 192 19.4 Why PröEnvironmental Behaviour Elicits Positive Emotions: A Closer Look at the Eudaimonic View 194 19.5 Summary 196 Glossary 196 Suggestions for Further Reading 197 Review Questions 197 20 Symbolic Aspects of Environmental Behaviour 198Birgitta Gatersleben and Ellen van der Werff 20.1 Introduction 199 20.2 Identity 199 20.2.1 Environmental Self¿Identity and Behaviour 200 20.2.2 Factors...