Stephen M. Bleay, PhD, Senior Technical Specialist, Home Office Centre for Applied Science and Technology. Stephen has worked at the Home Office since 2003, his work focusing on processes for the visualisation and imaging of fingermarks. He is one of the principal authors of the Home Office Fingermark Visualisation Manual and has contributed to over 40 peer-reviewed articles on fingerprints and related forensic science subjects.

Ruth S. Croxton, PhD, Principal Lecturer, University of Lincoln. Ruth has worked at the University of Lincoln since 2002 and is programme leader for the BSc (Hons) Forensic Science degree. Her main research areas are latent fingermark composition and the development of new methods to study them, contributing to a number of peer-reviewed articles in this area.

Marcel de Puit, PhD, Senior Scientist, Netherlands Forensic Institute and Associate Professor, Delft University of Technology. Marcel started as a forensic scientist at the NFI in 2007. His main interest is the analysis of fingerprints with the purpose of providing information in other forensic disciplines. He has published over 20 scientific articles on fingerprints and related matter.

Series Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii 1 Introduction 1Stephen M. Bleay and Marcel de Puit References 10
2 Formation of fingermarks 11 Stephen M. Bleay and Marcel de Puit 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Initial contact 12 2.3 Interaction outcomes 13 2.4 The finger 17 2.5 The surface 24 2.6 Removal of the finger from the surface 30 2.7 Summary of the initial contact 32 References 33 3 Composition and properties of fingermarks 35Ruth S. Croxton, Stephen M. Bleay and Marcel de Puit 3.1 Chemical composition of fingermarks 35 3.2 Biological properties of fingermarks 55 3.3 Physical properties of fingermarks 57 References 62 4 Ageing of fingermarks 69Stephen M. Bleay and Marcel de Puit 4.1 The 'triangle of interaction' 69 4.2 The fingermark 70 4.3 The surface 70 4.4 The environment 78 4.5 Interactions 81 4.6 Time 94 References 96 5 Initial examination and the selection of fingermark enhancement processes 99Stephen M. Bleay 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Processing options 100 5.3 Process selection 103 5.4 The processing environment 105 References 109 6 Optical detection and enhancement techniques 111Stephen M. Bleay 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Current operational use 116 6.3 Visual examination 117 6.4 Fluorescence examination 125 6.5 Ultraviolet reflection 138 6.6 Infrared reflection 141 6.7 Colour filtration and monochromatic illumination 144 6.8 Multispectral imaging 149 References 151 Further reading 153 7 Vapour phase techniques 155Stephen M. Bleay and Marcel de Puit 7.1 Introduction 155 7.2 Current operational use 156 7.3 Superglue/cyanoacrylate fuming 158 7.4 Vacuum metal deposition 172 7.5 Iodine fuming 181 7.6 Radioactive sulphur dioxide 185 7.7 Other fuming techniques 189 References 193 Further reading 196 8 Solid phase selective deposition techniques 199Stephen M. Bleay 8.1 Introduction 199 8.2 Current operational use 200 8.3 Powders 201 8.4 ESDA 213 8.5 Nanoparticle powders 216 References 219 9 Amino acid reagents 221Stephen M. Bleay 9.1 Introduction 221 9.2 Current operational use 223 9.3 Ninhydrin 224 9.4 1,8¿Diazafluoren¿9¿one 231 9.5 1,2¿Indandione 237 9.6 Ninhydrin analogues 242 9.7 Fluorescamine 246 9.8 o¿Phthalaldehyde 250 9.9 Genipin 252 9.10 Lawsone 256 9.11 Alloxan 259 9.12 4¿Chlorö7¿nitrobenzofuran chloride 260 9.13 Dansyl chloride 262 9.14 Dimethylaminocinnemaldehyde and dimethylaminobenzaldehyde 263 References 268 Further reading 272 10 Reagents for other eccrine constituents 275Stephen M. Bleay 10.1 Introduction 275 10.2 Current operational use 276 10.3 4¿Dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde 277 10.4 Silver nitrate 279 References 281 Further reading 282 11 Lipid reagents 283Stephen M. Bleay 11.1 Introduction 283 11.2 Current operational use 285 11.3 Solvent Black 3 (Sudan Black) 286 11.4 Basic Violet 3 (Gentian Violet, Crystal Violet) 290 11.5 Oil Red O (Solvent Red 27) 295 11.6 Iodine solution 297 11.7 Ruthenium tetroxide 299 11.8 Osmium tetroxide 301 [...]opium chelate 302 11.10 Natural Yellow 3 (curcumin) 305 11.11 Nile Red and Nile Blue A 308 11.12 Basic Violet 2 311 11.13 Rubeanic acid-copper acetate 313 11.14 Phosphomolybdic acid 315 References 317 Further reading 320 12 Liquid phase selective deposition techniques 321Stephen M. Bleay 12.1 Introduction 321 12.2 Current operational use 323 12.3 Small particle reagent 326 12.4 Powder suspensions 330 12.5 Physical developer 336 12.6 Multi¿metal deposition 345 References 352 Further reading 355 13 Enhancement processes for marks in blood 357Stephen M. Bleay 13.1 Introduction 357 13.2 Current operational use 361 13.3 Protein stains 363 13.4 Peroxidase reagents 369 References 380 Further reading 381 14 Electrical and electrochemical processes 383Stephen M. Bleay 14.1 Introduction 383 14.2 Current operational use 385 14.3 Etching 386 14.4 Corrosion visualisation 388 14.5 Electrodeposition 392 References 397 Further reading 399 15 Miscellaneous processes: lifting and specialist imaging 401Stephen M. Bleay 15.1 Introduction 401 15.2 Current operational use 403 15.3 Lifting 404 15.4 Scanning electron microscopy 407 15.5 X¿ray fluorescence (and X¿ray imaging) 410 15.6 Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) 413 15.7 Matrix¿assisted laser desorption/ionisation mass spectrometry (MALDI¿MS) 414 15.8 Attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR¿FTIR) 415 References 417 Further reading 419 16 Evaluation and comparison of fingermark enhancement processes 421Stephen M. Bleay 16.1 Introduction 421 16.2 Technology Readiness Level 3: Proof of concept 423 16.3 Technology Readiness Level 4: Process optimisation 425 16.4 Technology Readiness Level 5: Laboratory trials 427 16.5 Technology Readiness Level 6: Pseudöoperational trials 437 16.6 Technology Readiness Level 7: Operational trials 439 16.7 Technology Readiness Level 8: Standard operating procedures 439 16.8 Technology Readiness Level 9: Ongoing monitoring 440 References 440 17 Sequential processing and impact on other forensic evidence 443Stephen M. Bleay and Marcel de Puit 17.1 Sequential processing of fingermarks 443 17.2 Test methodologies for developing processing sequences 449 17.3 Integrated sequential forensic processing 453 References 466 18 Interpreting the results of fingermark enhancement 469Stephen M. Bleay 18.1 Introduction 469 18.2 Location of the mark 471 18.3 Type of substrate 473 18.4 Constituents of the mark 478 18.5 Enhancement process 480 18.6 The environment 482 18.7 Image processing 483 18.8 Image capture 484 References 487 Index 489