Allan Seabridge is the Chief Flight Systems Engineer at BAE SYSTEMS at Warton in Lancashire in the UK. In over 30 years in the aerospace industry his work has included avionics on the Nimrod MRA 4 and Joint Strike Fighter as well as a the development of a range of flight and avionics systems on a wide range of fast jets, training aircraft and ground and maritime surveillance projects. Spending much of his time between Europe and the US, Allan is fully aware of systems developments worldwide. He is also keen to encourage a further understanding of integrated engineering systems.

Series preface xvii

Acknowledgements xix

About the authors xxi

Introduction 1

1 Military roles 7

1.1 Introduction 7

1.2 Air superiority 8

1.2.1 Role description 8

1.2.2 Key performance characteristics 8

1.2.3 Crew complement 9

1.2.4 Systems architecture 9

1.2.5 Air superiority - aircraft types 11

1.3 Ground attack 11

1.3.1 Role description 11

1.3.2 Key performance characteristics 11

1.3.3 Crew complement 12

1.3.4 Systems architecture 12

1.3.5 Ground attack - aircraft types 12

1.4 Strategic bomber 12

1.4.1 Role description 12

1.4.2 Key performance characteristics 14

1.4.3 Crew complement 14

1.4.4 Systems architecture 14

1.4.5 Strategic bomber - aircraft types 15

1.5 Maritime patrol 16

1.5.1 Role description 16

1.5.2 Anti-surface unit warfare (ASuW) role 17

1.5.3 Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) role 17

1.5.4 Search and rescue (SAR) role 18

1.5.4.1 Datum searches 19

1.5.4.2 Area searches 20

1.5.4.3 Scene-of-action commander 20

1.5.5 Exclusive economic zone protection 21

1.5.5.1 Oil and gas rig patrols 21

1.5.5.2 Anti-pollution 21

1.5.5.3 Fishery protection 21

1.5.5.4 Customs and excise cooperation 21

1.5.6 Key performance characteristics 22

1.5.7 Crew complement 22

1.5.8 Systems architecture 22

1.5.9 MPA aircraft types 22

1.6 Battlefield surveillance 24

1.6.1 Role description 24

1.6.2 Key performance characteristics 24

1.6.3 Crew complement 25

1.6.4 Systems architecture 25

1.6.5 Battlefield surveillance aircraft types 25

1.7 Airborne early warning 26

1.7.1 Role description 26

1.7.2 Key performance characteristics 27

1.7.3 Crew complement 27

1.7.4 Systems architecture 27

1.7.5 AEW aircraft types 28

1.8 Electronic warfare 29

1.8.1 Role description 29

1.8.2 Electronic countermeasures 29

1.8.3 Electronic support measures 30

1.8.4 Signals intelligence (SIGINT) 30

1.8.5 Key performance characteristics 31

1.8.6 Crew complement 31

1.8.7 Systems architecture 32

1.8.8 Example aircraft types 32

1.9 Photographic reconnaissance 32

1.9.1 Role description 32

1.9.2 Key performance characteristics 34

1.9.3 Crew complement 34

1.9.4 Systems architecture 34

1.9.5 Typical aircraft types 34

1.10 Air-to-air refuelling 35

1.10.1 Role description 35

1.10.2 Key performance characteristics 37

1.10.3 Crew complement 37

1.10.4 Systems architecture 37

1.10.5 Aircraft types 38

1.11 Troop/materiel transport 39

1.11.1 Role description 39

1.11.2 Key performance characteristics 39

1.11.3 Crew complement 39

1.11.4 Systems architecture 39

1.11.5 Typical aircraft types 40

1.12 Unmanned air vehicles 41

1.13 Training 43

1.13.1 Typical aircraft types 45

1.14 Special roles 45

1.14.1 Examples of special roles 45

1.15 Summary 45

Further reading 46

2 Technology and architectures 47

2.1 Evolution of avionics architectures 47

2.1.1 Distributed analogue architecture 49

2.1.2 Distributed digital architecture 50

2.1.3 Federated digital architecture 52

2.1.4 Integrated modular architecture 54

2.1.5 Open architecture issues 54

2.1.6 Impact of digital systems 56

2.1.7 Response of the services to digital avionics systems issues 57

2.1.8 Need to embrace COTS 58

2.2 Aerospace-specific data buses 60

2.2.1 Tornado serial 60

2.2.2 Arinc 429 62

2.2.3 Mil-std-1553b 64

2.2.4 Stanag 3910 67

2.3 JIAWG architecture 70

2.3.1 Generic JIAWG architecture 70

2.3.2 High-speed data bus 72

2.3.3 PI bus 73

2.3.4 TM bus 73

2.3.5 Obsolescence issues 73

2.4 COTS data buses 74

2.4.1 Fibre channel 75

2.4.2 Fibre channel options 77

2.4.3 IEEE 1394 firewire 77

2.5 Real-time operating systems 78

2.5.1 Key attributes 78

2.5.2 Safety 79

2.5.3 Software partitioning 80

2.5.4 Software languages 82

2.5.5 Security 82

2.6 RF integration 83

2.6.1 Primary radar evolution 84

2.6.1.1 Independent systems of the 1950s 84

2.6.1.2 Integrated systems of the 1960s and 1970s 85

2.6.1.3 Integrated modular architecture of the 1990s 86

2.6.2 JIAWG RF subsystem integration 87

2.7 Pave Pace/F-35 shared aperture architecture 94

References 97

3 Basic radar systems 99

3.1 Basic principles of radar 99

3.2 Radar antenna characteristics 104

3.3 Major radar modes 107

3.3.1 Air-to-air search 107

3.3.2 Air-to-air tracking 108

3.3.3 Air-to-air track-while-scan 109

3.3.4 Ground mapping 110

3.4 Antenna directional properties 111

3.5 Pulsed radar architecture 112

3.5.1 Pulsed radar components 112

3.5.1.1 Modulator 113

3.5.1.2 Transmitter 113

3.5.1.3 Antenna 113

3.5.1.4 Receiver 114

3.5.1.5 Video processor 114

3.5.2 Pulsed modulation 114

3.5.3 Receiver characteristics 116

3.5.3.1 Noise 116

3.5.3.2 Clutter 122

3.5.4 Radar range equation 122

3.6 Doppler radar 123

3.7 Other uses of radar 124

3.7.1 Frequency modulation ranging 124

3.7.2 Terrain-following radar 125

3.7.3 Continuous wave illumination 126

3.7.4 Multimode operation 127

3.8 Target tracking 128

3.8.1 Range tracking 128

3.8.2 Angle tracking 129

3.8.2.1 Sequential lobing 129

3.8.2.2 Conical scan 130

3.8.2.3 Monopulse 132

References 134

4 Advanced radar systems 135

4.1 Pulse compression 135

4.1.1 Coherent transmission 137

4.1.2 Fourier transform 140

4.2 Pulsed Doppler operation 140

4.2.1 Range ambiguities 143

4.2.2 Effect of the PRF on the frequency spectrum - Doppler ambiguities 144

4.2.3 Range and Doppler ambiguities 145

4.3 Pulsed Doppler radar implementation 149

4.3.1 Receiver 150

4.3.2 Signal processor 150

4.3.3 Radar data processor 154

4.4 Advanced antennas 156

4.4.1 Principle of the phased array 156

4.4.2 Planar arrays 157

4.4.3 Electronically scanned array 158

4.4.4 Active electronically steered array (AESA) 160

4.5 Synthetic aperture radar 164

4.6 Low observability 170

4.6.1 Factors affecting the radar cross-section 173

4.6.2 Reducing the RCS 178

4.6.3 Comparative RCS values 179

4.6.4 Low probability of intercept operation 180

References 181

5 Electrooptics 183

5.1 Introduction 183

5.2 Television 186

5.3 Night-vision goggles 189

5.4 IR imaging 191

5.4.1 IR imaging device 194

5.4.2 Rotating scanner 196

5.4.3 Planar image 197

5.4.4 Focal plane array or 'staring array' 198

5.4.5 IR detector technology 199

5.5 IR tracking 202

5.5.1 IR seeker heads 202

5.5.2 Image tracking 204

5.5.3 IR search and track systems 205

5.6 Lasers 206

5.6.1 Principles of operation 207

5.6.2 Laser sensor applications 211

5.6.3 US Air Force airborne laser (ABL) 214

5.6.4 Laser safety 215

5.7 Integrated systems 216

5.7.1 Electrooptic sensor fusion 216

5.7.2 Pod installations 218

5.7.3 Turret installations 220

5.7.4 Internal installations 224

References 228

6 Electronic warfare 229

6.1 Introduction 229

6.2 Signals intelligence (SIGINT) 233

6.2.1 Electronic intelligence (ELINT) 234

6.2.2 Communications intelligence (COMINT) 236

6.3 Electronic support measures 238

6.4 Electronic countermeasures and counter-countermeasures 241

6.4.1 Noise jamming 241

6.4.1.1 Burnthrough 243

6.4.2 Deception jamming 244

6.4.3 Deployment of the jamming platform 245

6.4.4 Low probability of intercept (LPI) radar 246

6.5 Defensive aids 247

6.5.1 Radar warning receiver 248

6.5.2 Missile warning receiver 249

6.5.3 Laser warning systems 249

6.5.4 Countermeasure dispensers 250

6.5.4.1 Chaff and flares 251

6.5.4.2 Towed decoy 252

6.5.5 Integrated defensive aids systems 253

6.5.5.1 AN/APG-79 AESA radar 253

6.5.5.2 AN/ALR-67 radar warning receiver 253

6.5.5.3 AN/ALQ-214 integrated defensive electronic countermeasures (IDECM) 254

6.5.5.4 AN/ALE-47 countermeasure dispenser 255

References 256

7 Communications and identification 257

7.1 Definition of CNI 257

7.1.1 RF spectrum 258

7.1.2 Communications control systems 259

7.2 RF propagation 259

7.2.1 High frequency 261

7.2.2 Very high frequency 262

7.2.3 Satellite communications 264

7.3 Transponders 266

7.3.1 Air traffic control (ATC) transponder - mode S 267

7.3.2 Traffic collision and avoidance system 269

7.3.3 Automatic dependent surveillance - address mode (ADS-A) 272

7.3.4 Automatic dependent surveillance - broadcast mode (ADS-B) 272

7.3.5 Indentification friend or foe (IFF) 272

7.4 Data links 273

7.4.1 JTIDS operation 275

7.4.2 Other data links 277

7.5 Network-centric operations 277

References 279

8 Navigation 281

8.1 Navigation principles 281

8.1.1 Introduction 281

8.1.2 Basic navigation 282

8.2 Radio navigation 284

8.2.1 Oceanic crossings 285